Intervention: Cognitive Restructuring
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual or Group, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
Interventions from a cognitive theoretical approach are often used for depressive disorders in order to help challenge the pessimistic thinking of individuals. Cognitive therapists believe that self-defeating behaviors can stem from defective cognitions and irrational thinking. Therefore, assisting students in identifying these negative thoughts and replacing them with more positive ones is beneficial. This intervention is called cognitive restructuring. The school counselor can use this technique in individual or group settings and also in a number of different ways.
A procedure for counselors to follow when using cognitive restructuring with their clients is provided by Erford, Eaves, Bryant, and Young (2010).
1) Firstly, the school counselor should gather background information in order to discover how the client handled past and current problems.
2) Second, the counselor should assist the client in becoming aware of their thought process by discussing real life examples that support the client’s conclusions and also different interpretations of the evidence.
3) Next, the counselor examines the process of rational thinking by focusing on how the client’s thoughts affect their well-being. The counselor can exaggerate irrational thinking to make the point more visible to the client. In addition, evaluation of the client’s beliefs and thought patterns is important when helping the client learn how to change their internal beliefs.
4) Finally, the counselor should help the client form reasonable goals that can be attained.
More specific cognitive restructuring strategies that school counselors use in individual or group counseling may follow this example:
1) Start off by having the student actually list their possible thinking errors, while evaluating their thought patterns. Items on this list may include black-and-white thinking, listening to and accepting criticisms more than compliments, and/or using binocular vision, which is happens when students see their problems as being bigger than they really are, while seeing personal strengths as being smaller than they really are (Auger, 2005).
2) Then, ask the student simple questions like "What's the evidence?" or "Is there another way to look at it?" in order for them to further explore and describe their distorted thoughts. While discussing, the school counselor can also combat negative thoughts by working with students to develop positive statements that they can say to themselves in situations that typically elicit depressive feelings. These statements should not be generic, but rather individualized and realistic for the student. For example, a student faced with a difficult math test might use the statement, "I have never failed a math test before, and even if I do I am still an A student in my other subjects," rather than the generic statement, "I am smart" (Auger, 2005).
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual or Group, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
Interventions from a cognitive theoretical approach are often used for depressive disorders in order to help challenge the pessimistic thinking of individuals. Cognitive therapists believe that self-defeating behaviors can stem from defective cognitions and irrational thinking. Therefore, assisting students in identifying these negative thoughts and replacing them with more positive ones is beneficial. This intervention is called cognitive restructuring. The school counselor can use this technique in individual or group settings and also in a number of different ways.
A procedure for counselors to follow when using cognitive restructuring with their clients is provided by Erford, Eaves, Bryant, and Young (2010).
1) Firstly, the school counselor should gather background information in order to discover how the client handled past and current problems.
2) Second, the counselor should assist the client in becoming aware of their thought process by discussing real life examples that support the client’s conclusions and also different interpretations of the evidence.
3) Next, the counselor examines the process of rational thinking by focusing on how the client’s thoughts affect their well-being. The counselor can exaggerate irrational thinking to make the point more visible to the client. In addition, evaluation of the client’s beliefs and thought patterns is important when helping the client learn how to change their internal beliefs.
4) Finally, the counselor should help the client form reasonable goals that can be attained.
More specific cognitive restructuring strategies that school counselors use in individual or group counseling may follow this example:
1) Start off by having the student actually list their possible thinking errors, while evaluating their thought patterns. Items on this list may include black-and-white thinking, listening to and accepting criticisms more than compliments, and/or using binocular vision, which is happens when students see their problems as being bigger than they really are, while seeing personal strengths as being smaller than they really are (Auger, 2005).
2) Then, ask the student simple questions like "What's the evidence?" or "Is there another way to look at it?" in order for them to further explore and describe their distorted thoughts. While discussing, the school counselor can also combat negative thoughts by working with students to develop positive statements that they can say to themselves in situations that typically elicit depressive feelings. These statements should not be generic, but rather individualized and realistic for the student. For example, a student faced with a difficult math test might use the statement, "I have never failed a math test before, and even if I do I am still an A student in my other subjects," rather than the generic statement, "I am smart" (Auger, 2005).
Scheme Diary
Having students keep what is called a scheme diary is a great next step for cognitive restructuring (Erford et al., 2010). This diary’s purpose is to help the student further explore the connections among their thoughts and feelings with the real life situations they come across. For instance, they may record the situations they are in and significant events of their day, how they felt in each situation, and what was going through their minds at the time. A specific outline of a scheme diary described by Erford et al. (2010) may include:
- Triggers (“What set off my reactions?”)
- Emotions (“What was I feeling?”)
- Thoughts (“What was I thinking?”)
- Behaviors (“What did I actually do?”)
- Life traps (“Which of my buttons got pushed? What early life experiences might be related?”)
- Coping/realistic concerns (“In what ways were my reactions justified? What did I do to cause or worsen the situation? Is there anyone I can check this out with?”)
- Overreactions (“In what ways did I exaggerate or misinterpret the situation?”), problem-solve (“In what ways could I cope better in the future or solve the problem?”)
- Learned (“What have I learned from this situation that I can apply in the future?”).
The school counselor and student can then regularly review and examine the diary and work to change any negative thoughts that are evident.
- Triggers (“What set off my reactions?”)
- Emotions (“What was I feeling?”)
- Thoughts (“What was I thinking?”)
- Behaviors (“What did I actually do?”)
- Life traps (“Which of my buttons got pushed? What early life experiences might be related?”)
- Coping/realistic concerns (“In what ways were my reactions justified? What did I do to cause or worsen the situation? Is there anyone I can check this out with?”)
- Overreactions (“In what ways did I exaggerate or misinterpret the situation?”), problem-solve (“In what ways could I cope better in the future or solve the problem?”)
- Learned (“What have I learned from this situation that I can apply in the future?”).
The school counselor and student can then regularly review and examine the diary and work to change any negative thoughts that are evident.
*Multicultural Considerations: These cognitive restructuring techniques, including the list and diary, do not require many materials, so it is feasible for students from low socioeconomic backgrounds, as well as schools in low income neighborhoods with limited resources, to utilize. In addition, although students from certain cultures sometimes are less willing to be open and express their thoughts and feelings freely, the writing aspects of this intervention may be more helpful and easy for them to get started.
*Developmental Considerations: Most adolescents should be able to participate in these activities. During adolescence, students can be particularly difficult to engage, especially in talk therapy. Since writing is already a major component of their school curriculum at this time, they may feel more comfortable and capable of expressing themselves through this more appealing way.
*Modification/Accommodation: In the case of a student with an orthopedic impairment, such as cerebral palsy, certain modifications can be made in implementing this intervention. Firstly, counseling should take place in a room that is accessible to wheelchairs if needed. In addition, the counselor can offer to write down the student’s responses for the list activity, while also allowing oral responses when possible. The counselor may also provide the student with a tape recorder to use as their diary at home if writing is very difficult for them.
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A1 Improve Academic Self-concept
A:A1.1 Articulate feelings of competence and confidence as learners
A:A1.5 Identify attitudes and behaviors that lead to successful learning
A:A3 Achieve School Success
A:A3.1 Take responsibility for their actions
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.1 Demonstrate the motivation to achieve individual potential
A:B1.6 Use knowledge of learning styles to positively influence school performance
A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship of academics to the world of work and to life at home and in the community.
Competencies: A:C1 Relate School to Life Experiences
A:C1.4 Demonstrate an understanding of the value of lifelong learning as essential to seeking, obtaining and maintaining life goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.6 Learn how to set goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.2 Identify values, attitudes and beliefs
PS:A1.3 Learn the goal-setting process
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
PS:A1.6 Distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior
PS:A1.8 Understand the need for self-control and how to practice it
*Developmental Considerations: Most adolescents should be able to participate in these activities. During adolescence, students can be particularly difficult to engage, especially in talk therapy. Since writing is already a major component of their school curriculum at this time, they may feel more comfortable and capable of expressing themselves through this more appealing way.
*Modification/Accommodation: In the case of a student with an orthopedic impairment, such as cerebral palsy, certain modifications can be made in implementing this intervention. Firstly, counseling should take place in a room that is accessible to wheelchairs if needed. In addition, the counselor can offer to write down the student’s responses for the list activity, while also allowing oral responses when possible. The counselor may also provide the student with a tape recorder to use as their diary at home if writing is very difficult for them.
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A1 Improve Academic Self-concept
A:A1.1 Articulate feelings of competence and confidence as learners
A:A1.5 Identify attitudes and behaviors that lead to successful learning
A:A3 Achieve School Success
A:A3.1 Take responsibility for their actions
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.1 Demonstrate the motivation to achieve individual potential
A:B1.6 Use knowledge of learning styles to positively influence school performance
A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship of academics to the world of work and to life at home and in the community.
Competencies: A:C1 Relate School to Life Experiences
A:C1.4 Demonstrate an understanding of the value of lifelong learning as essential to seeking, obtaining and maintaining life goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.6 Learn how to set goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.2 Identify values, attitudes and beliefs
PS:A1.3 Learn the goal-setting process
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
PS:A1.6 Distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior
PS:A1.8 Understand the need for self-control and how to practice it
References
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA National Standards for Students. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Auger, R.W. (2005). School-based interventions for students with depressive disorders. Professional School Counseling, 8(4), 344-352.
Erford, B.T., Eaves, S.H., Bryant, E.M., & Young, K.A. (2010). 35 techniques every counselor should know. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Binggeli, N. (2010). Cognitive restructuring worksheet example [Online image]. Retrieved from http://www.nelsonbinggeli.net/NB/CBT-CR.html
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA National Standards for Students. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Auger, R.W. (2005). School-based interventions for students with depressive disorders. Professional School Counseling, 8(4), 344-352.
Erford, B.T., Eaves, S.H., Bryant, E.M., & Young, K.A. (2010). 35 techniques every counselor should know. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Binggeli, N. (2010). Cognitive restructuring worksheet example [Online image]. Retrieved from http://www.nelsonbinggeli.net/NB/CBT-CR.html
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Intervention: Bibliotherapy
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive-Behavioral Theory or Psychodynamic Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
There is evidence to show that bibliotherapy (book therapy) can be helpful for clients with a depressive disorder, like Major Depressive Disorder. According to Schectman (2009), there are two schools of bibliotherapy that can be used with adolescents that follow different theoretical approaches. These are cognitive and affective bibliotherapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe that the process of learning is the ultimate mechanism for change and that all behaviors are learned and can therefore be relearned with proper guidance. Cognitive bibliotherapy is seen as an educationally oriented form of intervention, in which mastering information and acquisition of skills are the main goals (Schectman, 2009). Informative written material or even computerized programs can be used as long as it is relevant to the difficulties faced by the client and guides the individual to improve their functioning and ability to solve their problems. This form of bibliotherapy is often used in the treatment of depression because it is important for these clients to better be able to understand and modify their cognitions and behaviors (Schectman, 2009).
In contrast, affective bibliotherapy comes from psychodynamic theories that can be traced back to Freud. The written materials are used to uncover repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences. These therapists believe that people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from pain, which often results in their disconnecting from their emotions, becoming unaware of their true feelings, and being unable to resolve their problems effectively. The goal then is that the client will become emotionally involved in a character’s struggle and in turn then will achieve more insight and awareness about their own situation through the exploration and reflection of their feelings (Schectman, 2009). Through literature, clients may come to realize that there are universal aspects to their problems and come to share a connectedness with many other people and cultures. This type of intervention is specifically good for adolescents because often young people feel like they have no one to turn to for help. Identifying with a character and creating a kind of bond with them further broadens their minds to the world and enhances an understanding of the human situation and themselves better, while also providing comfort (Schectman, 2009). Schectman (2009) further explains that school counselors can choose to use books, poetry, and/or films for this intervention. In addition, non-fiction written material is used more for cognitive bibliotherapy, while affective bibliotherapists gravitate toward fiction more.
Although different, both forms use a basic procedure of 4 stages that counselors should follow while implementing this intervention (Erford, Eaves, Bryant, & Young, 2010).
1) The first stage is called identification. In this step, the counselor should identify the client’s needs. This is done through intake, the first several sessions of building rapport, asking certain questions to see what the main issue is, etc.
2) The second stage is called selection. In this step, counselors select books that are appropriate to the client’s situation. It is important that the books are written at a developmental level that the client will be able to understand. The material should also be in line with the client’s values and goals, and the characters in the story need to be believable to them.
3) The third stage is called presentation. In this step, the client is involved in actually reading the book during sessions and also on their own outside the counseling room. A discussion of important aspects of the book occurs between the counselor and client. The counselor may request that the client underline key points in the story and/or also keep a journal to write down these thoughts. In addition, the counselor has the client retell the story to help them continue to identify with a character. The client can decide how they want to do this. For instance, they can explain the story orally, through drawing, writing, or other ways. During this process, it is important to have the client focus on the feelings experienced by the character and what they are going through. There should also be guided questions asked to the client related to a specific topic or more general thoughts presented that the client should talk about. For example, “After reading this part, now I am feeling/thinking…”. Then, counselors should help the client point out transformations in the character’s feelings, relationships, and behaviors, while also making comparisons between themselves and the character. Next, have the client identify alternative solutions for the character’s problems and discuss the consequences of each.
4) The fourth stage is the follow-up. During this stage, the counselor and client discuss what the client has learned about themselves, as well as what he has gained from being able to identify with the character. The client can again express his experience through discussion, role-play, drawing, etc.
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive-Behavioral Theory or Psychodynamic Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
There is evidence to show that bibliotherapy (book therapy) can be helpful for clients with a depressive disorder, like Major Depressive Disorder. According to Schectman (2009), there are two schools of bibliotherapy that can be used with adolescents that follow different theoretical approaches. These are cognitive and affective bibliotherapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapists believe that the process of learning is the ultimate mechanism for change and that all behaviors are learned and can therefore be relearned with proper guidance. Cognitive bibliotherapy is seen as an educationally oriented form of intervention, in which mastering information and acquisition of skills are the main goals (Schectman, 2009). Informative written material or even computerized programs can be used as long as it is relevant to the difficulties faced by the client and guides the individual to improve their functioning and ability to solve their problems. This form of bibliotherapy is often used in the treatment of depression because it is important for these clients to better be able to understand and modify their cognitions and behaviors (Schectman, 2009).
In contrast, affective bibliotherapy comes from psychodynamic theories that can be traced back to Freud. The written materials are used to uncover repressed thoughts, feelings, and experiences. These therapists believe that people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from pain, which often results in their disconnecting from their emotions, becoming unaware of their true feelings, and being unable to resolve their problems effectively. The goal then is that the client will become emotionally involved in a character’s struggle and in turn then will achieve more insight and awareness about their own situation through the exploration and reflection of their feelings (Schectman, 2009). Through literature, clients may come to realize that there are universal aspects to their problems and come to share a connectedness with many other people and cultures. This type of intervention is specifically good for adolescents because often young people feel like they have no one to turn to for help. Identifying with a character and creating a kind of bond with them further broadens their minds to the world and enhances an understanding of the human situation and themselves better, while also providing comfort (Schectman, 2009). Schectman (2009) further explains that school counselors can choose to use books, poetry, and/or films for this intervention. In addition, non-fiction written material is used more for cognitive bibliotherapy, while affective bibliotherapists gravitate toward fiction more.
Although different, both forms use a basic procedure of 4 stages that counselors should follow while implementing this intervention (Erford, Eaves, Bryant, & Young, 2010).
1) The first stage is called identification. In this step, the counselor should identify the client’s needs. This is done through intake, the first several sessions of building rapport, asking certain questions to see what the main issue is, etc.
2) The second stage is called selection. In this step, counselors select books that are appropriate to the client’s situation. It is important that the books are written at a developmental level that the client will be able to understand. The material should also be in line with the client’s values and goals, and the characters in the story need to be believable to them.
3) The third stage is called presentation. In this step, the client is involved in actually reading the book during sessions and also on their own outside the counseling room. A discussion of important aspects of the book occurs between the counselor and client. The counselor may request that the client underline key points in the story and/or also keep a journal to write down these thoughts. In addition, the counselor has the client retell the story to help them continue to identify with a character. The client can decide how they want to do this. For instance, they can explain the story orally, through drawing, writing, or other ways. During this process, it is important to have the client focus on the feelings experienced by the character and what they are going through. There should also be guided questions asked to the client related to a specific topic or more general thoughts presented that the client should talk about. For example, “After reading this part, now I am feeling/thinking…”. Then, counselors should help the client point out transformations in the character’s feelings, relationships, and behaviors, while also making comparisons between themselves and the character. Next, have the client identify alternative solutions for the character’s problems and discuss the consequences of each.
4) The fourth stage is the follow-up. During this stage, the counselor and client discuss what the client has learned about themselves, as well as what he has gained from being able to identify with the character. The client can again express his experience through discussion, role-play, drawing, etc.
*Multicultural Considerations: A bibliotherapy intervention may be a good method to use for students from certain cultures who normally do not like to express themselves very much. It may be easier for them to relate their thoughts and feelings to an identified character, rather than to themselves at first. However, for schools in low income neighborhoods with limited resources, bibliotherapy may not be more challenging to use because of the possible lack of many books to choose from that would be appropriate for the student.
*Developmental Considerations: It is important that the books selected be age appropriate and written at a developmental level that the client will be able to understand. The material should be engaging and appealing to the student and in line with their interests, values, and goals, in order to keep their attention and focus.
*Modification/Accommodation: This intervention considers those who are developmentally delayed or learning disabled because the books can be read to them. There are also many variations on how exploration of the activity can be played out. For example, they can discuss it, draw it, write about it, etc.
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A1 Improve Academic Self-concept
A:A1.2 Display a positive interest in learning
A:A1.5 Identify attitudes and behaviors that lead to successful learning
A:A2 Acquire Skills for Improving Learning
A:A2.4 Apply knowledge and learning styles to positively influence school performance
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.2 Learn and apply critical-thinking skills
A:B1.5 Organize and apply academic information from a variety of sources
A:B1.6 Use knowledge of learning styles to positively influence school performance
A:B1.7 Become a self-directed and independent learner
A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.8 Pursue and develop competency in areas of interest
Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction.
Competencies: C:B1 Acquire Career Information
C:B1.1 Apply decision-making skills to career planning, course selection and career transition
C:B1.2 Identify personal skills, interests and abilities and relate them to current career choice
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training and the world of work.
Competencies: C:C1 Acquire Knowledge to Achieve Career Goals
C:C1.3 Identify personal preferences and interests influencing career choice and success
C:C2 Apply Skills to Achieve Career Goals
C:C2.1 Demonstrate how interests, abilities and achievement relate to achieving personal, social, educational and career goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.2 Identify values, attitudes and beliefs
PS:A1.3 Learn the goal-setting process
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
PS:A1.6 Distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior
PS:A1.10 Identify personal strengths and assets
*Developmental Considerations: It is important that the books selected be age appropriate and written at a developmental level that the client will be able to understand. The material should be engaging and appealing to the student and in line with their interests, values, and goals, in order to keep their attention and focus.
*Modification/Accommodation: This intervention considers those who are developmentally delayed or learning disabled because the books can be read to them. There are also many variations on how exploration of the activity can be played out. For example, they can discuss it, draw it, write about it, etc.
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A1 Improve Academic Self-concept
A:A1.2 Display a positive interest in learning
A:A1.5 Identify attitudes and behaviors that lead to successful learning
A:A2 Acquire Skills for Improving Learning
A:A2.4 Apply knowledge and learning styles to positively influence school performance
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.2 Learn and apply critical-thinking skills
A:B1.5 Organize and apply academic information from a variety of sources
A:B1.6 Use knowledge of learning styles to positively influence school performance
A:B1.7 Become a self-directed and independent learner
A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.8 Pursue and develop competency in areas of interest
Standard B: Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction.
Competencies: C:B1 Acquire Career Information
C:B1.1 Apply decision-making skills to career planning, course selection and career transition
C:B1.2 Identify personal skills, interests and abilities and relate them to current career choice
Standard C: Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training and the world of work.
Competencies: C:C1 Acquire Knowledge to Achieve Career Goals
C:C1.3 Identify personal preferences and interests influencing career choice and success
C:C2 Apply Skills to Achieve Career Goals
C:C2.1 Demonstrate how interests, abilities and achievement relate to achieving personal, social, educational and career goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.2 Identify values, attitudes and beliefs
PS:A1.3 Learn the goal-setting process
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
PS:A1.6 Distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate behavior
PS:A1.10 Identify personal strengths and assets
References
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA National Standards for Students. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Erford, B.T., Eaves, S.H., Bryant, E.M., & Young, K.A. (2010). 35 techniques every counselor should know. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Schectman, Z. (2009). Bibliotherapy as a method of treatment. In Treating child and adolescent aggression through bibliotherapy (pp. 21-37). New York, NY:
Springer.
Intervention: Social Skills Training
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive Behavioral Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual or Group, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
Another secondary intervention is social skills training. According to Gould, Greenberg, Velting, and Shaffer (2003), “Skills training programs emphasize the development of problem-solving, coping, and cognitive skills, as suicidal youths have deficits in these areas.” Skills training can additionally reduce suicide risk factors such as depression, drug abuse, and hopelessness.
Theoretical Approach: Cognitive Behavioral Theory
Modality of Intervention: Individual or Group, Secondary Prevention
Setting: School
Another secondary intervention is social skills training. According to Gould, Greenberg, Velting, and Shaffer (2003), “Skills training programs emphasize the development of problem-solving, coping, and cognitive skills, as suicidal youths have deficits in these areas.” Skills training can additionally reduce suicide risk factors such as depression, drug abuse, and hopelessness.
Setting for Social Skills Training: This program can be administered in various settings. It can be incorporated into regular curriculum, can be taught in a guidance lesson, as an after-school activity, or within individual/group sessions with students in the counseling office.
Social Skills Training
Eight essentials skills to focus on: giving positive feedback, giving negative feedback, accepting negative feedback, resisting peer pressure, problem solving, negotiating, following instructions, and beginning conversations.
Example of one group session, taken from Handbook of Child and Adolescent Treatment Manuals:
Social Skill: EXPRESSING YOUR FEELINGS DIRECTLY
Introduction and Overview: Say to the group, “An important skill for all of us to learn is how to express ourselves directly. It is hard to directly state how you are feeling to another person but if someone is doing something you don’t like, it is important to let that person know how you are feeling. Plus, when we speak directly to others about our feelings, we often avoid getting into fights and getting our feelings hurt. So, when we express ourselves directly we end up feeling better about ourselves. When you use this skill, you must do it in an appropriate manner and at the right time. It is important to use this sill when you want to make things better, not as a way of making others feel bad.”
Example of one group session, taken from Handbook of Child and Adolescent Treatment Manuals:
Social Skill: EXPRESSING YOUR FEELINGS DIRECTLY
Introduction and Overview: Say to the group, “An important skill for all of us to learn is how to express ourselves directly. It is hard to directly state how you are feeling to another person but if someone is doing something you don’t like, it is important to let that person know how you are feeling. Plus, when we speak directly to others about our feelings, we often avoid getting into fights and getting our feelings hurt. So, when we express ourselves directly we end up feeling better about ourselves. When you use this skill, you must do it in an appropriate manner and at the right time. It is important to use this sill when you want to make things better, not as a way of making others feel bad.”
Discussion Question: Why is it important to learn how to express our feelings directly to others?
(This will help summarize what you have just said and allow the students to retain the information by telling it back to you.)
Look at Examples:
Describe a situation from your own life in which you had to use the skill of expressing your feelings directly, or give an example where you could have used this skill but didn’t. Point out the consequences of not using the skill. Also, examine:
· The setting where this occurred
· Who was present
· What was the statement used to express feelings?
· How did you express your feelings in a direct manner?
· What was the outcome of expressing your feelings?
· How did it feel afterwards?
Allow the group members to describe their own examples!
(This will help summarize what you have just said and allow the students to retain the information by telling it back to you.)
Look at Examples:
Describe a situation from your own life in which you had to use the skill of expressing your feelings directly, or give an example where you could have used this skill but didn’t. Point out the consequences of not using the skill. Also, examine:
· The setting where this occurred
· Who was present
· What was the statement used to express feelings?
· How did you express your feelings in a direct manner?
· What was the outcome of expressing your feelings?
· How did it feel afterwards?
Allow the group members to describe their own examples!
Modeling the Skill for Students
Model the skill: “I will do a role play to model how to express feelings directly and then we can do our role-play practice.”
SCENARIO: You are working on a project with a friend, you make a mistake and your friend calls you “stupid.”
Peer: You just messed up, you are so stupid!!
You: When you call me stupid, it makes me mad. Anyone can make a mistake.
Peer: I just say that all the time to people. I didn’t mean to get you mad.
You: Well, it does make me mad so please don’t call me that.
SCENARIO: You are working on a project with a friend, you make a mistake and your friend calls you “stupid.”
Peer: You just messed up, you are so stupid!!
You: When you call me stupid, it makes me mad. Anyone can make a mistake.
Peer: I just say that all the time to people. I didn’t mean to get you mad.
You: Well, it does make me mad so please don’t call me that.
Review the skill: That model demonstrated: Looking the person in the eye and the use of good body language. It stated feelings in a clear and direct manner. It demonstrated listening to what the other person had to say in response and stated how the other person can avoid the situation in the future.
Practice the skill: Each member should practice the skill at least once during the group session. If it is hard for the students to come up with scenarios, offer these samples: Situation 1: Your friend keeps changing the channel and you are interested in watching a specific TV show. Situation 2: Your teacher assigns you to work with two other classmates on an art project. You have been working hard to get the project completed but your classmates are just sitting around talking. Situation 3: You go to the movies with several of your friends. This is a movie you really wanted to see. During the movie, your friends are talking to loudly that you can’t hear the movie. |
*Multicultural consideration: Since social skills training is a broad-based teaching method, most students will benefit from this type of exercise. However, counselors should be aware that different cultures engage in social situations differently. A skill such as “expressing your feelings directly” might not be culturally acceptable for students to use with others such as their parents, or guardians in cultures where students are very respectful and non-authoritative with elders.
*Developmental consideration: During adolescence many skills are needed by all young people, not just those in trouble. Socialization is very important during this time and social skills training can help young people meet the required demands of social interactions. For example, friendship is critically important to adolescents yet some would have a difficult time starting and maintaining conversations. Without social skills training, interpersonal relationships will suffer so it is important to teach students these skills.
*Accommodation for student with a mobility impairment: With this exercise, allow the student to participate in the counseling role-play sitting. Help the student find a note taker in the group to write down important points and information. Arrange for the location of group counseling to be in an accessible location (if a wheelchair is utilized by the student).
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A2 Acquire Skills for Improving Learning
A:A2.4 Apply knowledge and learning styles to positively influence school performance
Competencies: A:A3 Achieve School Success
A:A3.1 Take responsibility for their actions
A:A3.3 Develop a broad range of interests and abilities
A:A3.5 Share knowledge
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.1 Demonstrate the motivation to achieve individual potential
A:B1.2 Learn and apply critical-thinking skills
Competencies: A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.6 Learn how to set goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
Competencies: PS:A2 Acquire Interpersonal Skills
PS:A2.7 Know that communication involves speaking, listening and nonverbal behavior
Competencies: PS:C1 Acquire Personal Safety Skills
PS:C1.7 Apply effective problem-solving and decision-making skills to make safe and healthy choices
References
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA National Standards for Students. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Gould, M. S., Greenberg, T., Velting, D. M., & Shaffer, D. (2003). Youth suicide risk and preventive interventions: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(4), 386-405.
Koenigsberg, J. (n.d.). Social skills training. Retrieved from http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Social-skills-training.html
LeCroy, C. W. (1994). Social skills training. Handbook of child and adolescent treatment manuals, 170-199.
*Developmental consideration: During adolescence many skills are needed by all young people, not just those in trouble. Socialization is very important during this time and social skills training can help young people meet the required demands of social interactions. For example, friendship is critically important to adolescents yet some would have a difficult time starting and maintaining conversations. Without social skills training, interpersonal relationships will suffer so it is important to teach students these skills.
*Accommodation for student with a mobility impairment: With this exercise, allow the student to participate in the counseling role-play sitting. Help the student find a note taker in the group to write down important points and information. Arrange for the location of group counseling to be in an accessible location (if a wheelchair is utilized by the student).
ASCA NATIONAL STANDARDS:
Academic Standard A: Students will acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective learning in school and across the life span.
Competencies: A:A2 Acquire Skills for Improving Learning
A:A2.4 Apply knowledge and learning styles to positively influence school performance
Competencies: A:A3 Achieve School Success
A:A3.1 Take responsibility for their actions
A:A3.3 Develop a broad range of interests and abilities
A:A3.5 Share knowledge
Standard B: Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college.
Competencies: A:B1 Improve Learning
A:B1.1 Demonstrate the motivation to achieve individual potential
A:B1.2 Learn and apply critical-thinking skills
Competencies: A:B2 Plan to Achieve Goals
A:B2.5 Use problem-solving and decision-making skills to assess progress toward educational goals
Career Standard A: Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions.
Competencies: C:A1 Develop Career Awareness
C:A1.3. Develop an awareness of personal abilities, skills, interests and motivations
C:A1.5 Learn to make decisions
C:A1.6 Learn how to set goals
Personal/Social Standard A: Students will acquire the knowledge, attitudes and interpersonal skills to help them understand and respect self and others.
Competencies: PS:A1 Acquire Self-knowledge
PS:A1.1 Develop positive attitudes toward self as a unique and worthy person
PS:A1.4 Understand change is a part of growth
PS:A1.5 Identify and express feelings
Competencies: PS:A2 Acquire Interpersonal Skills
PS:A2.7 Know that communication involves speaking, listening and nonverbal behavior
Competencies: PS:C1 Acquire Personal Safety Skills
PS:C1.7 Apply effective problem-solving and decision-making skills to make safe and healthy choices
References
American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA National Standards for Students. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Gould, M. S., Greenberg, T., Velting, D. M., & Shaffer, D. (2003). Youth suicide risk and preventive interventions: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 42(4), 386-405.
Koenigsberg, J. (n.d.). Social skills training. Retrieved from http://www.minddisorders.com/Py-Z/Social-skills-training.html
LeCroy, C. W. (1994). Social skills training. Handbook of child and adolescent treatment manuals, 170-199.